Understanding Adolescent Ethnic-Racial Identity: A Latent Profile Approach

Understanding Adolescent Ethnic-Racial Identity: A Latent Profile Approach

Identity formation is a key task during adolescence (Erikson, 1968). In ethnoracially diverse societies like the United States, the development of ethnic-racial identity (ERI) has become a normative experience of adolescents (Umaña‐Taylor et al., 2014). Prior researchers defined ERI as multidimensional, encompassing not only how individuals understand and connect to their ethnic or racial background but also the process through which they learned about their ethnic-racial group membership. ERI scholars have also acknowledged that ERI plays a significant role in shaping people’s psychological well-being, academic success, and ability to navigate societal challenges like discrimination (Worrell et al., 2020). However, the majority of the extant research has focused on individual dimensions of ERI: less is known about how different patterns of ERI affect youth outcomes. Our recent study (Luo & Worrell, in progress) sought to identify what distinct ERI profiles exist among adolescents and how these profiles are related to psychosocial and academic adjustment. Using a person-centered approach, we analyzed a diverse sample of 1,797 adolescents to understand how ERI profiles vary and what implications they have for students' adjustment.

Why Study ERI?

ERI encompasses various aspects, two of the most robustly studied are exploration and commitment (Umaña‐Taylor et al., 2014). Exploration refers to the active effort one makes to learn about their ethnic or racial group, whereas commitment reflects how strongly one identifies with that group. Developing a strong ERI has been linked to numerous positive outcomes, including better mental health, stronger school belonging, and better academic motivation (Seaton et al., 2006; Kiang et al., 2012). However, adolescents with a strong sense of ERI may also be more sensitive to discrimination targeted at their ethnic-racial group, making ERI both a protective and a potential risk factor (Yip, 2018). Although an affirmed ERI can provide resilience in the face of discrimination, it may also lead to heightened awareness of societal inequities and increased experiences of psychological burden.

The Benefits of a Person-Centered Approach

To gain a more nuanced and comprehensive understanding of ERI as a multidimensional construct, we used Latent Profile Analysis (LPA; Howard & Hoffman, 2018), a person-centered approach that classifies individuals into groups based on patterns in their responses to survey items assessing ERI exploration and commitment. In contrast to variable-centered methods that focus on individual variables, LPA allows us to identify distinct profiles that capture the complexity of how adolescents experience and develop their ERI. Without assuming that all adolescents follow the same developmental pathway for ERI, person-centered approaches are especially beneficial in this study to highlight the heterogeneity within adolescent ERI development.

ERI Profiles and Associations with Youth Outcomes

Our LPA analysis, based on 1797 adolescents’ responses to the Multiple Ethnic Identity Measure (Phinney & Ong, 2007), revealed four ERI profiles: Strongly Diffused, Moderately Diffused, Balanced, and Achieved (Figure 1). These profiles showcased that adolescents vary significantly in how much they explore and commit to their ERI:

• Strongly Diffused: Adolescents in this profile reported very low levels of both exploration and commitment.

• Moderately Diffused: Adolescents in this profile reported moderately low levels of exploration and commitment.

• Balanced: Adolescents in this profile reported average levels of exploration and commitment.

• Achieved: Adolescents in this profile reported high levels of exploration and commitment.

Notably, students in these ERI profiles also differed in their academic and psychosocial outcomes (Figure 2). The Achieved group showed the most adaptive outcomes. These adolescents reported a stronger sense of school belonging and a higher perceived value of education. Having developed a strong ERI after active exploration may help these adolescents form a clearer sense of identity, which translates into a greater connection to their school environment and a positive perception of education as a meaningful path toward future success.

Interestingly, the Achieved group also had the highest expectations of experiencing discrimination. This heightened awareness of systemic inequities may result from their deeper and more critical engagement with ERI exploration within an inequitable society. Although Achieved adolescents benefit from a stronger sense of belonging and educational motivation, they are also more attuned to the challenges their group faces, leading them to anticipate more barriers in their future careers or academic paths. In contrast, adolescents in the Strongly Diffused group reported lower expectations of discrimination, likely because they are less engaged with issues surrounding their ethnic-racial background.

The Balanced and Moderately Diffused groups also demonstrated differences in outcomes. Adolescents in the Balanced group showed better adjustment compared to those in the Moderately Diffused profile, particularly in their sense of school belonging and perceived educational value. This suggests that a moderate level of engagement with ERI can lead to more positive outcomes, though not as strong as those seen in the Achieved group.

These findings show that an achieved ERI can foster resilience, motivation, and belonging; however, it may also increase the psychological burden of anticipating discrimination. The Achieved profile illustrates this complex dynamic, where the benefits of a well-developed ERI are tempered by the challenges of navigating a society that may not always be inclusive. Adolescents in the Diffused profiles, on the other hand, may experience less immediate psychological stress related to discrimination due to their lack of exploration and awareness, but they also miss out on the adaptive benefits that come with an achieved ERI.

Implications for Family, School, and Community

The findings of this study highlight the vital role of ERI and the need for more attention from parents, educators, and schools to support adolescents’ ERI. For family caregivers, ethnic-racial socialization begins at home, where they help their children explore and develop a sense of pride and commitment to their ethnic-racial background. The way parents and/or family members guide these conversations sets the foundation for how adolescents navigate their identity in broader social contexts.

Additionally, educators and schools have a critical responsibility to reinforce these efforts by creating environments that not only validate diverse ERI but actively engage students in respectful and inclusive discussions around ERI and ethnicity and race-based discrimination. Schools can serve as safe spaces where students are encouraged to explore their identities without fear of judgment, fostering a deeper sense of belonging and academic motivation.

Moreover, the collaboration between families and schools in the community is crucial to optimize the benefit of ERI development while protecting adolescents from potential psychological burdens when developing their ERI. When parents and educators work together, it creates continuity in ethnic-racial socialization practices across settings, reducing the possibility for disjointment and/or conflicts that students may experience between home and school environments (Luo, 2024). 

Conclusion

Understanding adolescent ERI is critical for promoting both psychological well-being and academic success in today’s diverse society. Using a person-centered approach, we found the varied ways in which adolescents engage with their ERI. The four distinct profiles we identified—Strongly Diffused, Moderately Diffused, Balanced, and Achieved—show that whereas some adolescents have a strong sense of connection with their ethnic-racial group, others may experience challenges in forming these connections. Importantly, adolescents in the Achieved profile demonstrate more adaptive academic and psychosocial outcomes than their counterparts in the other profiles. However, the Achieved identity profile also comes with a heightened awareness of discrimination, revealing the complexity of navigating one’s ERI in an inequitable society.

The implications of these findings are extensive. The importance of supporting adolescent ERI is evident. It is also clear that supporting ERI development requires the active involvement of and collaboration between parents, educators, and community members. By fostering a deeper understanding of ERI and addressing the challenges associated with it, we can create a more inclusive and supportive environment for adolescents from diverse ethnic-racial and cultural backgrounds, helping them to navigate their identities with resilience and purpose.

References

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4. Luo, H.(2024). Promoting family-school congruence in ethnic-racial socialization: An integrated conceptual model. Human Development, 1. https://doi.org/10.1159/000541161

5. Luo, H., & Worrell, F. C. (in progress). Latent profiles of adolescent ethnic-racial identity: Associations with psychosocial and academic adjustment [Pre-qualifying paper, University of California, Berkeley].

6. Phinney, J. S., & Ong, A. D. (2007). Conceptualization and measurement of ethnic identity: Current status and future directions. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(3), 271–281. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.54.3.271

7. Seaton, E. K., Scottham, K. M., & Sellers, R. M. (2006). The status model of racial identity development in African American adolescents: Evidence of structure, trajectories and well-being. Child Development, 77(5), 1416–1426. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00944.x

8. Umaña‐Taylor, A. J., Quintana, S. M., Lee, R. M., Cross, W. E., Rivas‐Drake, D., Schwartz, S. J., Syed, M., Yip, T., & Seaton, E. (2014). Ethnic and racial identity during adolescence and into young adulthood: An integrated conceptualization. Child Development, 85(1), 21–39. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12196

9. Worrell, F. C. (2020). Ethnic and cultural identity. In R. V. Galliher (Ed.), The encyclopedia of child and adolescent development: Vol 10. Development of the Self in Adolescence (pp. 1–10). Wiley Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119171492.wecad455

10. Yip, T. (2018). Ethnic/Racial Identity—A double-edged sword? Associations with discrimination and psychological outcomes. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 27(3), 170–175. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721417739348

Acknowledgment

I would like to acknowledge Dr. Frank C. Worrell, co-author of the manuscript on which this blog post is based, for his invaluable contributions to the study.